Food Regulations in the Usa Essay

Everyone has heard the stories about mad cow disease and other food-borne diseases coming into the United States from countries such as United Kingdom and China. Besides that locally, foodborne illnesses are among the top of deaths within the United States. Cause of these deaths, most could be prevented if better rules and regulations were in place federally and locally in the United States. In this paper I will be discussing insight on how the US Government can improve the effectiveness of state and local food safety programs. Food safety responsibilities at the state and local levels reside in too many agencies (health, agricultural, industry, etc. ) With all of these agencies it is hard for all of them to cooperate together when detecting and reporting said incidences to the federal level. Without an effort to build a comprehensive national regulation that cover the three basic elements of prevention, detection, and rapid response. When it comes to the area of surveillance, there is a lack in the communication chain between federal agencies, state, and local health agencies. A good example of this lack of surveillance was back in 2008, when Federal Drug Administration found traces of melamine in infant milk products. However, the FDA concluded melamine or cyanuric acid alone, â€Å"at or below 1 part per million in infant formula do not raise public health concerns† in babies. (2008 Chinese milk scandal) Melamine is a toxic chemical that can be harmful if swallowed, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin. According to FDA scientists, melamine can be absorbed into the blood stream forming clots that can cause kidneys to malfunction. United States FDA’s limit was put at 0. 63 mg, but was later reduced to 0. 63 mg daily. The World Health Organization’s food safety director estimated that the amount of melamine a person could stand per day without incurring a bigger health risk, the â€Å"tolerable daily intake† (TDI), was 0. 2 mg per kg of body mass (â€Å"Melamine†) To eliminate such risks from entering into the United States, FDA needs to improve on monitoring and/or inspection of the food safety practices of foreign food producers and suppliers. A solution to this surveillance problem would be improved communications and collaboration between federal agencies, state, and local health jurisdictions involved in food safety surveillance. As well as promote access to information from multiple passive foodborne outbreak surveillance databases by federal, state, and local health jurisdictions such as Pulse-Net. With better surveillances put into place, the next step would to concentrate on the inspection and regulation phases. There was an article written in 1956 (Eat, drink, & be wary, 1956) that explains how FDA does not regulate everything the same. The article goes on to explain about how Florida oranges and the additives that are used and how three of the dyes were deemed â€Å"highly toxic. It also states that if the FDA were to make new laws, which can take years for them to be passed. Another way is to mandate uniformity in product dating so consumers and regulators can differentiate between production dates, â€Å"sell by† dates, â€Å"use by† dates, and if dates are based on food safety concerns or product freshness considerations. Woteki & Kineman wrote an article entitled â€Å"Challenges and approaches to reducing foodborne illness† how the science of foodborne illnesses are accelerating faster than laws that can protects against said illnesses. While American consumers benefit from one of the world’s safest food supplies, the existing framework is a patchwork of laws and regulations that are frequently inconsistent and lag far behind current scientific knowledge of the risks posed by foodborne pathogens and toxic chemicals. (Woteki, Kineman, 2003) With proper regulations now in place, working on proper inspection procedures would be the next step to ensure safer food being imported and exported within the United States. Federal government needs to support continued development of a uniformed food safety inspection program for all state and local health jurisdictions and encourage its adoption through federal funding. The FDA has been working on this by developing Model Retail Food Standards. (NEHA, 2011) However, to improve the regulations that are needed the FDA have areas for improvement; such as encouraging (but not mandate) more uniformity in regulatory codes nationwide. Another solution in the inspection process would be to have a secure database where all the proper documents to be accessible by user-defined personnel. There was an incident where a local health department had to file a request for a copy of the most recent inspection of a food manufacturing plant from a certain federal agency. By the time that request was processed, six months had passed and the inspection was outdated and useless. (NEHA, 2011) Overall, the United States does ok in the prevention and detection of severe cases of foodborne illnesses. However, I believe that the FDA should do a better job in communicating with state and local government to better prevent and detect said type illnesses. Again some ways that could happen is to try to get a uniformed code of regulations across nationally. Now by doing this I am not saying we will prevent foodborne illnesses totally but we, as a nation, would be better off to indicate and be able to take the corrective actions needed.

Othello Is a Play About the Desperate Need for Certainty

Othello is a play about the desperate need for certainty The theme of certainty pervades the play from the opening scence, and as it progresses, the quest for certainty becomes more desperate and frantic; not only within the minds and actions of the characters, but also within the audience as we become desperate to know and understand the outcome of Iago’s malicous plan. Shakespeare introduces the protaginist, Othello, to the audience through the malicious and predujiced tongues of Iago, Roderigo and Brabantio.Iago condemns Othello for favouritism and shows obscenley to Brabantio that Othello is an ‘old black ram’, the ‘devil’, a ‘barbary horse’ copulating with his daughter. Rodergio too describes him as a ‘lascivious moor’ and ‘an extravagent and wheeling stranger. ’ This causes Brabantio to feel certian that Othello, repulsive in his blackness, must have seduced Desdemona by withcraft, magic spells or drugs.The picture echoes aspects of medevil and Elizabethan traditions about the devilish, cruel and lustful nature of moors, and Brabantio would most certainly rather believe these acceptable truths as opposed to reality- his ‘pure’ and virginal daughter is partaking in a sordid affair. Othello’s own desperate plea for certainty is also evident from the offset. Although he refuses to hide from Branbantio and denounce his frabrications, he suggests that Desdemona should testify freely how their love came about.Some may argue that Othello holds a number of insecurities about himself and this is a prime example of him desperatly needing Desdemona to justify her reasoning for marrying him. After all, he displays an incredible vulnaribilty, ‘a free and open nature, that thinks men honest that but seem to be so. ’ Iago works on these traits and his pretended disapproval of the relations between Cassio and Desdemona rouses Othello’s curiosity, thence his ins istance that he be told, and finally his fear that Iago’s information, got in his duty as an honest man, will harm him.At first, Othello appears to be confident of Desdemona’s love for him as he declares she ‘had eyes and chose me’. Iago however finds weakness in Othello’s certainty and seizing his oppurtunity, advises Othello to watch Cassio and Desdemona discreetly. He adds that, of his own well-founded knowledge, Venetian wives decieve their husbands; that Desdemona pretended to fear Othello, when in fact she loved him, and that she decieved her father so completley that he believed she was bewitched. Unable to deny these, Othello draws the disturbing inference.Suspicion takes root, and is revealed by his hesitant ‘I do not think Desdemona’s honest’, and his command that Emilia be set to watch Desdemona. He is desperate to find truth, and underlying doubts about his marriage may have escelated by Iago’s revelation and O thello is eventually driven to find this certianty in his own shortcomings- his blackness, age and unpolished manners. Iago’s evil has infiltrated Othello’s soul and has induced him, as Iago had hoped, ‘to renounce his baptism, all seals and symbols of redemmed sin. The noble image that Desdemona saw in Othello’s mind has become corrupted, and and not before long is he humiliating her through false prophecy, and he fails to see the unreason of punishing Desdemona for a crime she has not commited. In the end, Othello is desperate to relieve himself of all guilt and is certain the the demi-devil has ‘ensnared’ his soul and body.Desdemona is another charcter who clings desperatly on to her certainty that Othello is a kind and loving husband. Out of her generosity and loving-kindness, she continually makes excuses for Othello’s harshness: ‘some unhatched practice†¦ ath puddles his clear spirit’- an ironic perception. Othel lo’s vision of her is utterly distorted; and she in her faith and certianty to him is unable to percieve his spiritual overthrough. His fierce accusations that she is unchaste and a whore she meets by affirming that she is a ‘true and loyal wife’, and desperatly wants Othello to believe in this certainty. In her innocece, she finds it impossible to believe that there are women who are unfaithful to their husbands in spite of Emilia’s down to earth admission.In the last dreadful scence she maintains her innocence and pleads for mercy. Her chastity, loyalty, her whole- hearted commital to her husband’s welfare and to any good deed is the only pure certianty throughout the play, and Desdemona unfortunatly cannot make Othello see this. Emilia fiercy defends Desdemona throughout the play and is certain she would never disobey her husband. Ironically, she admits that she would ‘make her husband a cuckhold’ in order to ‘make him a monarc h’, however clings to her husband’s integrity as she testifies to his vileness and Desdemona’s virtue.

Dynamic Seal †Mba: Six Sigma / Operations Case Essay

Dynamic Seal, a precision parts manufacturer with a reputation for high quality, does not currently utilize a Statistical Process Control (SPC) system. However, United Airlines (UA), a major customer representing 14% of Dynamic Seal’s business, insists they implement an SPC system or loose United Airlines’ business. In addition Dynamic Seal do not have a sound preventative measure quality control system in place, preferring 100% inspection to cull bad quality, rather than building parts correctly from inception. Goal: Reduce product variance and the need for rework by implementing a company-wide quality control system that includes an element of Statistical Process Control. A secondary goal is to reduce waste by focusing on Lean engineering processes. Competitive Environment: Dynamic Seal are a successful manufacturer of mechanical components for aerospace, marine and military application. Their products require precision engineering, and the company has built an excellent reputation based on â€Å"high quality, innovative engineering and close tolerance manufacturing.† The company makes use of expensive superalloy materials manufactured to extremely tight tolerances, with many products selling for $10,000 to $50,000. A significant defective rate with such high cost materials / products will severely impact the company’s bottom line. The United Airlines production line operates under a separate department, with dedicated equipment and personnel. Dynamic Seal’s quality reputation is a result of highly skilled machinists and a 100% inspection policy. The company employs a workforce of approx. 400 people, in a 120,000 sq. ft. facility and has increased it’s sales ten-times over the last 10 years to $130 million. Key Facts: 1.Dynamic Seal does not have a company-wide Quality Management ethos. 2.There is a customer requirement to use SPC. 3.No SPC system is currently in place and equipment has not been tested for capability. 4.Quality is controlled by 35 quality inspectors and is not the responsibility of the workforce. 5.The Quality Control Dept. is overworked and underpaid – reports to the General Manager. 6.Machinists set informal equipment specifications, not the QC Dept. 7.The company operates a 100% inspection policy.  8.In-process inspection is infrequent, therefore origin of 25% of defective issues cannot be found. 9.Inspection and assignment of rework involves significant lag. 10.QC system generates significant volumes of paperwork: 80 defective reports (DMR) per week. 11.Product blueprints and Inspection Specs (IMS) often do not match and are not updated. 12.Initial defective rate documents (DMR) are often produced post-rework. Analysis: Two sets of process data have been collected for initial analysis. Before specific SPC issues can be addressed the process and equipment should be assessed to see they meet the capability requirements laid out in the customer specs. The first process examined uses the Lablond Lathe machinery and requires a machined diameter of 7.7250, plus tight tolerances of + .0005 inches. A Process Capability Ratio (Cpk) analysis of the lathe’s data, results in a Cpk of .379 (exhibit A). A result of less than one indicates the machine is not capable of matching the tolerances laid out in the IMS spec. Therefore the Lablond Lathe is not suitable to handle the process it is being used for. Before a more suitable machine is selected, the Lablond Lathe should be checked for calibration, as should the measuring equipment used. If all fall within calibration specs, new machinery should be selected that is capable of handling such tight tolerances. Solving machine capability issues is a low-hanging fruit method of quickly improving quality control. The second data set refers to the Cincinnati Milling Machine. Initial analysis indicates the machine is capable of meeting the required specs, so X-bar and R-bar run charts were constructed to visualize output performance against the IMS specs. Positions 8 to 10 on the R-bar chart (exhibit B) clearly indicate the process is out of control. The X-bar chart (exhibit C) further supports this claim by showing the process is out of control at positions 9 and 10. Although a bigger concern is that all but one data point lies above the control line, indicating the process could be off-center and require recalibrating. As Dynamic Seal’s materials and production methods are so expensive, before machine recalibration occurs, a fish bone diagram should be used to trace the problem to its source. Alternative Options: There are four significant options open to Dynamic Seal. The can opt to do nothing and potentially lose the United Airlines contract, plus risk further losses as more customers begin to impose stricter quality control requirements. They can implement a company-wide Quality Management system such as Six Sigma that incorporates SPC analysis. They can implement an SPC system on one type of machine throughout the manufacturing plant. Or they can implement a Quality Management / SPC system within the United Airlines production cell alone. Recommendation Short-term: To reduce project scope, I recommend initially focusing on the UA facility only. Once procedures have been tested and proven, they can be rolled out company-wide. Gordon Jenkins is a good person to head up the Quality Management program, as his initial plan (exhibit D) includes many elements of DMAIC and his review of the problems seems accurate. However, he needs senior management backing (possibly a promotion) and further Six Sigma training, to combat negative views from Alan Schneider and Scott Palmer. Without the three of them on the same page, any new quality management system will fail. Initially Jenkins and the QC team needs to perform a UA Dept. X-ray, creating process-maps, checking equipment capability and taking base-line SPC data (exhibit E). Once data has been received a full DMAIC analysis using Histogram / Pareto charts should be done to identify the low-hanging fruit. Variance issues in the new SPC data can be tracked to their source using fishbone diagrams and House of Quality reviews. Equipment selection, process streamlining, reduction in paperwork and implementing work procedures are valid projects. Equipment settings and tool selection should be standardized, reducing the craftsmanship required. The responsibility to monitor quality should be moved to the machinists. Having them fully involved in the process design, and giving them responsibility to manage their own quality would achieve machinist buy-in. In addition tight controls need to be placed around the production and updating of product specs, requiring improved communication and a sign-off system between the Sales, Engineering and Production Depts. Finally a measure of improvement is critical to the success of any quality management system. Improved SPC data will be part of that, but the company can also track rework labor hours, improvements in process throughput time, inventory reduction, and reduction in cost-of-goods as critical measures. Recommendation Long-term: SPC by itself does not promote in-depth quality management, therefore long-term I recommend Dynamic Seal implement a company-wide Lean Six Sigma system, with SPC analysis. To set the right tone and get management buy-in, long-term implementation should begin with upper-management Six Sigma training, including the GM. A dedicated approach to quality management should infiltrate all aspects of the company, from engineering to administration, with the goal of promoting a quality-focused Kaizen culture. The current Quality Control Dept. should train as Six Sigma black belts and be mandated to train the workforce in Six Sigma techniques and to oversee on-going Six Sigma projects. Salary incentives should be implemented that reflect advancement in Lean Six Sigma training.

Gardner's Intelligences Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Gardner's Intelligences - Assignment Example The best way to depict Gardner’s Theory of Intelligence is as a wheel rather than in a linear manner. His theory of intelligence is broken up into the following categories: spatial, linguistic, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential. Spatial ability involves being able to visualize images such as puzzles using the mind. Linguistic intelligence is the intelligence of language. Everything dealing with words, reading, writing, etc. comes naturally to people with high linguistic intelligence. Logical-mathematical intelligence deals with mathematical computational abilities. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence can be compared as being similar to athletic ability. People with good body-kinesthetic intelligence usually have good coordination as well as good reflexes. Musical intelligence coordinates to musical ability such as singing, recognizing tones, playing an instrument, etc. Interpersonal intelligence talks abo ut the ability of people to relate with one another and intrapersonal intelligence relates to the self-reflective behavior that we have within ourselves. Lastly, existential intelligence can be related to spirituality. Since there are so many aspects of intelligence, some of these are interconnected and it is possible to be intelligent in multiple areas. This theory also explains how people who are considered to have lower IQ scores could be gifted in other areas.

Animals in Visual Arts Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Animals in Visual Arts - Assignment Example The aim of the discourse is to proffer pertinent ideas of the type of filmmaking that one finds interesting. Currently, I actually have five ideas in mind that has been thought of as virtually interesting. These ideas are categorized as follows: (1) seeing animals in fantasy; (2) cultural and social influence and impact of social networking sites, particularly Facebook; (3) the claw game; (4) life within the womb; and (5) exploring the dark. For the first idea, one finds illustrating animals in fantasy as thought provoking and would entail a lot of innovative and creative talent. For the wild animals, I have envisioned them being transformed to tame animals: taking away everything that makes them wild or the strength that helps them attack. For instance, one sees the lion opening his mouth and his teeth are like baby teeth; the elephants will be petite; the eagle flying without sharp claws and brick; the frog without a long tong to catch the insects; and the bear without sharp nails and sharp teeth. What one believes that it would be an interesting concept for the human being ability to approach these previously wild animals and accept them as regular part of everyday life. On the other hand, I see parallel transformations for the tame animals as well as evolving into free and independent animals: for example the turtle will be free from its shell and will be able to move without it faster - not needing to be hidden anymore; so as the snail and the deer would not need to worry if the lions are around. And other animals won’t be hiding under a rock or in a cave and at the end of this short animation, there is a scene when a deer is running and escaping from a lion who is trying to attack and suddenly what the lion really wanted was to lick the deer’s face. Wonder of all, the deer opens its eyes and realizes that it was all a dream; but a dream that came true. The wild and tame animals are not anymore segregated and start running and playing with ea ch other in a unified world. For the second idea, the source for the plot is one’s cultural background and experience. I think it would be interesting to depict the social anxieties and struggles contemporary generation face from social networking sites, particularly Facebook. This idea focuses on cultural response and reaction to social networking. One envisions a local community where each member lived in a tranquil environment. A simple teen-ager in her own room posts pictures of favorite celebrities on her wall (a wall very similar to Facebook) where friends’ updated statuses, memorable events, places that were visited could be viewed as frequently as one intends to. However, since she considers this a magical wall, she covers it and hides it from people. Somehow, the secret is revealed and people coming knocking on the door and they come just to look at the wall. This girl’s wall is then compared to other girls within the community who has not discovered th e secret to the magical wall. Their lives could be seen as conservative, boring, but not subject to prying eyes. People who discovered the magical wall have posted all things about them and their friends which were revealed in their entirety to the community. There are diverse reactions ranging from awe, amazement, curiosity, embarrassment, frustration, hate, anger and eventually despair and being isolated.

The Civil Rights Revolutions of the 60s Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Civil Rights Revolutions of the 60s - Essay Example Since then, leaders and critics have already ceaselessly demanded that people, regardless of race and gender, should be accorded the respect that Whites have so far exclusively enjoyed. However, it was only during the 1960s when black Americans collectively demanded on the street, in churches and dialogues their rights as citizens under the United States Constitution. This mass movement was sparked by several important developments such as the efforts of four Southern students who initiated the Woolworth lunch counter to protest racial discrimination. (Farber and Bailey, p. 13) Then, there was also the Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education, 1954-1955, wherein it was found that school segregation was unconstitutional. (Sargent, p. 2) Finally, there was also the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. What was originally intended as anti-racial discrimination movement, the Rights Revolution came to cover several other issues that made the movements complic ated and far-reaching, especially in the context of reforms achieved. There was the clamor for economic, political and cultural policy-reforms, effectively highlighting the manner by which the Rights movements took the cudgels for several other causes.

History class Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

History class - Essay Example The extreme cold weather was no source of deterrence for the millions of people who had flocked to the Capitol Hill since 6 o’clock in the morning hinting at a sense of revere for a man who had African roots. This man’s slogan of change had come at time when America was facing economic recession and international pressure for its foreign policy. The crowd’s roar on seeing the man himself all pointed to the extent to which Obama was truly a â€Å"leader† of his nation. From the constant comparisons between the ousted President Bush and the careful monitoring of the first lady’s dress; each and every step met with close scrutiny. The sober tone of Obama represented the huge amount of issues that faced him in his tenure as a President. From what could be judged by the audience and fellow peers’ comments; though Obama was the beacon of hope, yet no one hoped for quick â€Å"fixtures†. All were aware that time had to be given to this man to even begin solving the debacles of his predecessor. The speech of the President itself set a tone of dignity and peace-a contrast to the tone set by Bush in his last victory speech. The international world was being greeted with a strong message of peaceful relationships .The nation was held responsible for their actions along with the government and its responsibilities-setting a tone of collective

Chapter 15 discussion questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Chapter 15 discussion questions - Essay Example Role clarity amongst followers is influenced by leader role-modeling, and such role clarity can improve a leader’s performance and behavior. Thus, intervening and situational variables are important points of convergence in the study of leader power, behavior and traits. Question 2 The research finds that leaders must develop a pattern of necessity interactions to meet the constant demands of subordinates, their own bosses, and the demands of a changing environment. These patterns of necessity interactions are determined by: the nature of the work, dependencies and role expectations of different parties and competing demands communicated by followers. They are also determined by the leader’s level of authority, the type of unit being led, external and internal rules of the corporation(i.e.: policies, budget), and by the nature of the group situation(i.e.: demoralized vs. well-organized followers). Leaders must develop a mental agenda of short-term and long-term strategi es to conduct their necessity interactions. These include: task-oriented, relations-oriented and change-oriented behaviors. These behaviors deal with getting the job done, building followers’ commitment to getting the job done, and adapting to changes in the external environment. Research has also found that the most effective leaders use inspirational influence, have skills in both referent and expert types of power, and use power in a ethical way. Leaders with high cognitive, interpersonal and technical skills have been found to be most effective, as are leaders with a socialized power orientation. Another finding is that skills are more important than personality traits for effective leadership. Question 3 The conceptualization of heroic leadership consists of a charismatic leader who exerts a unidirectional influence on his followers. This assumption causes the research to be designed to show causality as coming only from the leader’s influence on organizational ev ents. Shared leadership perspective asserts that leadership is a shared process between different leaders at different levels of the organization, between leaders and their superiors, followers and between leader, followers and institutional and intervening variables. The research designed using this perspective must take into account the reciprocal influence of situational and intervening variables on leader behavior, as well as the dynamics of the society in which the organization exists. Question 4 There are limitations to the dyadic perspective. The heroic leader/individual follower concept is in part a result of cultural influences, including the â€Å"Lone Hero† mythology of American individualism. In addition, it is easier in terms of human cognition to understand a single Hero/single Follower construct. But this doesn’t take into account the fact that leadership occurs within an organization, a team and a society. It does not explain the reciprocal processes at work in the systems that exist within an organization. The open-systems theory asserts that organizations are created to do work that an individual on his own cannot. It takes into account that leadership consists of influencing group processes, including determining the purpose(of a job), how to attain the purpose, membership criteria, and the strictures of the society. In dyadic research, the causal path from leader behavior to follower outcome is usually direct, and does

Urban studies- Theories of Poverty Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Urban studies- Theories of Poverty - Essay Example The principle cause of this is the lack of proper socioeconomic structures that should be set up by leaders. Supporters of the fact that poverty is a consequence of structures argue that it is built in the political and economic structure in the capitalist society in the U.S. It is the political and economic structures that bring about poverty and not individual problems or the temporary weakness of the economy. As such, Linn (par 1-3) indicates that the issue of poverty in numerous cities in America has remained a stubborn element in spite of the prescription of varied public policies. Also, the situation has remained constant for a long time regardless of the many efforts that have been put to reduce the problem. Instead of helping to deal with the poverty problem, the economic, political and social factors have elevated the position instead. This paper will reveal how the poor have remained poor as a result of the political and economic structures, which are the main causes of pov erty as opposed to its linkage to pathology or accidents. The issue of urban poverty in the contemporary economic environment has been highlighted through the use of various media. It is widely portrayed as an element in the ghetto or barrio areas in the towns and has been connected with a number of causes and consequences in large-scale socioeconomic perspectives. In the US, the causes of urban poverty include inadequate human capital, discrimination in relation to race, and gender. However, the main cause lies in the economic and political structure such as the Federal Reserve. Slight changes can either elevate or prevent poverty such as change in oil prices that came as a shock between 1974 and 1994 in the U.S (Ni and Kresl 37). Within the economic field, the main reasons for the shift and increase in poverty levels include changes in technology and the organization within most manufacturing companies. In addition, there has been a relative growth in the

Genomics, Vaccines & Weaponization Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Genomics, Vaccines & Weaponization - Essay Example The second step is to produce the recombinant proteins in E.coli bacteria, and this may range to about 350 proteins. These proteins are then purified and used in mice. The immune sera so obtained would be collected and would be assayed to determine their binding capacity with the proteins on the N. meningitides B bacteria to observe any kind of bactericidal activity in vitro. A few numbers of proteins can be taken that have a high titer in all the assays. Here the protein sequence variability was being studied in the isolates of N. mengitidis B bacteria and from these the final candidates would be 2 vaccines that met all the criteria should be selected and had no sequence variability. This can undergo phase 1 clinical trial (Fraser 23-33). Robert Stevens was dying from inhalation anthrax and was dying from the disease, in September 2001 following the 911 attacks. He had received a letter containing some strange powder and following coming in contact with this powder became ill. His b ody was taken to Northern Arizona University wherein biologist Paul Keim had invented a molecular biology technology of distinguishing one strain of anthrax from another. Keim had collected about 88 strains of anthrax and tried to compare them with each of these. He compared the DNA (genome) of the bacteria and located for various genetic markers specifically 8 in number, and found that it had matched one that was used by the US Army for its vaccine studies as it was a highly virulent bacterium and could be used in bioterrorism. This strain was known as the Ames Strain and was first isolated from a cow in Texas in 1981 and was sent to the USSAMRIID for research (US Department of Justice ). The bacteria had passed several hands of various laboratories. They later studied the difference between the Ames anthrax bacteria and the bacteria that killed Stevens. They compared 5 million chemical letters present in 5000 genes. After doing all these studies, they found that the genome of the bacteria that was present in Stevens’s body was the same as the Ames strain, and they could not identify specifically from which lab was the sample smuggled out and used by the terrorists. Mutations that the bacteria would undergo after being passed from one lab to another was being studied, but the scientist did not find any differences. Finally they found that the genome of morph D of the bacteria did contain a large portion that was missing and this was caused by an altered chemical letter in the DNA. They zeroed down to 8 out of the 1000 samples collected and this was traced to an army laboratory USAMRIID and the researcher involved was Bruce Ivins who had committed suicide after he was declared the prime suspect (PBS). Biological warfare is the use of biological agents or their toxins in order to destroy human, animal and plant life and would be an act of terrorism or war. These biological organisms are capable of reproducing on the hosts or are able to release toxic sub stances on the host, cause disease and finally kill or cause critical illnesses in the host. Some of the biological weapons may actually be lethal, whereas other may be non-lethal but may have a disastrous effect. Further, by using infectious agents, the effect is even more disastrous and disease rapidly spreads from one individual to another, and drugs and vaccines that are required may not be immediately available. Most of such biological warfare agents are transmitted on contact or through

The role of HR planning in the resourcing process Essay

The role of HR planning in the resourcing process - Essay Example Presently, demographic shifts, technological changes, environmental instability and global competition have led to a new role for HR planners since resourcing process have grown to be complex than before. Ulrich and Brockbank (2005) pointed out that HR planning involves continuous and systematic process of analyzing a business human resource needs under changing conditions. In addition, it involves development of workforce policies that are consistent with long range effectiveness of a business. HR planning involves forecasting HR needs and designation of the necessary actions involved in the resourcing process such as recruitment, career development and training. HR planning helps to forecast the right numbers of employees and more so in getting the right kind of personnel at the right place within the right time. According to Robertson and Smith (2001), HR planning coordinated the enumerated elements and helps to gather resources the business needs in both long term and short term. HR planning is a vital component for organizational success in the long-run. This paper will discusses role of HR planning in the resourcing process, importance on job analysis, internal and external recruitment tools and selection techniques, importance of effective induction and appropriate retention strategies in respect of recruitment of a cinema manager while at the same time reviewing the current state of the United Kingdom employment market. The following are ways in which HR planning facilitate the resourcing process: The facilitation of pre-recruitment review is a process that involves provision of professional advice as to whether the internal staff should be taken into consideration in filling the vacant positions. A process is then followed in evaluating the staff’s suitability. The staff who were working under the former cinema manager should, therefore, be evaluated to determine if anyone is capable of filling the vacant position. The provision of guidance and expert advice is used in the initial stages of recruitment especially in defining the vacant position, preparing advertisements, advising on and identifying proper channels for advertisement among other important recruitment activities. As such, the HR planners will be resourceful in defining the roles of a cinema manager, identifying the right advertisement channels among other recruitment activities. The HR planner acts as an expert adviser to the selection committee throughout the selection process. This involves briefing the committee members on the appropriate interview techniques and providing

Possible Solutions For Environment Problems Essay Example for Free

Possible Solutions For Environment Problems Essay Global warming has become a major issue discussed over Medias and governments all over the world today. It is a problem that threatens the whole world because of the destructive impacts it can have on us humans and to the environment. Global warming is not a new phenomenon. It is often referred to as the gradual rise of the earths near surface temperature as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities. The green house gases are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen, ozone and water vapor, they act as a blanket that traps enough heat from the sun to warm the earth. This is the green house effect as it is essential to life, for without it the earth would be so cold and would be uninhabitable. If not enough are in the air then the earth would become cold, but if too many gases are released into the air, then we have the problem of things heating up. The releasing of green house gases by humans slowly warm the earth, potentially changing the worlds climate pattern causing sea levels to rise and more disastrous effects. Now that the causes and effects of global warming are known, there can be strategies done to minimize its causes and effects. To achieve this countries and individuals have to work together to fight global warming, agreements made at the Kyoto Protocol is to minimize burning of fossil fuels in world leading countries of greenhouse gas emission including the United States and China. The earths atmosphere is made up of gases; carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor and nitrogen, these gases are known as the greenhouse gases, they trap heat from the sun to warm the earth. Without them the earth would be so cold. Most scientists believe that the sharp increase of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere is warming the earths climate. Gases such as carbon dioxide, CFC and methane are the most released gases due to daily human activities. Exhaust from automobiles, smokes from coal fired power plants and deforestation are the major contributors to greenhouse gas emission. The largest greenhouse gas emitters are the densely populated and more developed countries such as the United States, China and Russia. Motor vehicles are the highest emitter of greenhouse gas; they produce high levels of carbon monoxide and nitrous oxide which is released into the atmosphere. Another major source is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and wood) by power plants to generate electricity. In 2003 the United States released  more than 5 million tons of gases from power plant alone. An increase of forest fires or deforestation for land clearing has lessened the amount of trees. Trees play a vital role in trapping carbon dioxide, when deforestation occurs more carbon dioxide is released. The Amazon is the largest carbon dioxide forest emitter (Protecting Forests). Any resource consuming method releasing quantities of carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide or even water vapor contributes to the effect (Tapia 2007). These mass emissions of greenhouse gases cause the atmosphere to trap more heat thus leading to the warming of the earth. As the temperature rises the earth becomes hotter and hotter causing polar ice caps and glaciers across the globe to melt. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific body tasked to evaluate the risk of climate change caused by human activity, has released their latest report (Summary for Policy Makers 2007) on how global warming is affecting the earth. The report shows that the sea ice in the arctic is shrinking in all seasons, most dramatically in summer†¦.Important coastal regions of the ice sheets on Greenland and West Antarctica, and the glaciers of the Antarctic Peninsula, are thinning and contributing to sea level rise( IPCC 2007, p.109). Another cause of sea level rise is the thermal expansion of water; this means that the increase in the earths temperature heats the ocean causing it to expand. The combination of water from melting glaciers, ice sheets and the thermal expansion causes sea level to rise. Rising of sea level leads to erosion and flooding but the most disastrous of all is the drowning of low lying islands and cites, the island of Tuvalu is slowly sinking from the rising in sea level. A warmer ocean can change weather patterns and could cause extreme weather events as already experienced in 2005 weather condition caused number of tornadoes and hurricanes in the United States and Asia( Tapia, 2007). The continuous rise in temperature and melting of ice caps is changing the landscapes in the artic circle making it uninhabitable for animal species including polar bears, seals and whales because they are only adapted to cold climate. Other effects include severe droughts in dry climate areas such as Africa has already leaded to famine. Fatal heat waves have already triggered massive bush fires in Australia and Europe, not only that but these heat waves could cause skin cancer. The  IPCCs report concluded that if the temperature continues to rise within the next 50 years o r so, its effects on us humans and our planet will be more disastrous (IPCC, 2007). However there could be strategies done to prevent global warming and its effects. Since us humans are the main source of global warming we are the only ones that can prevent its causes to minimize its devastating effects. As mentioned before that human activities such coal power plant emissions and deforestation are amongst the leaders of carbon dioxide emitters. Large industrialized countries should cut down the level of carbon dioxide emitted from coal fired power plants. The Kyoto protocol is an agreement made under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC), their goal is to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in large industrialized countries such as the United States (Kyoto Protocol 2008). Another step is the banning of coal fired power plants, director of the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies told the Terra Daily that There should be a moratorium on building any more coal-fired power plants until the technology to capture and sequester the (carbon dioxide emissions) is available, he believes that the suspension of coal fire d power plant is the key to cutting carbon dioxide emission (Staff Writers, 2007). Moreover we could use energy from renewable sources such as wind and solar power because it is much cleaner than fossil fuels. For example, more than 40 percent of the US states is increasingly using renewable energy because it is more affordable and cleaner than fossil fuel (Clean Energy, 2007). While reducing industrial emissions is critically important, we should also stop deforestation of rainforests such as the Amazon where trees are cut down, burned and cleared for agriculture and cattle grazing (Forest Holocaust Protecting Forests). We could stop deforestation and replant more and more trees to replace the fallen trees. BIBLIOGRAPHY: Simmons (2005, September 11). 5 deadliest effects of Global Warming, Retrieved February 28 2008 from http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/sciencetech/5-deadliest-effects-of-global-warming/276Staff Writers (2007, February 27). Climate Science, retrieved March 2 2008 from

Social Inequalities Of Indigenous People

Social Inequalities Of Indigenous People It would be hard to deny that for one of the smaller representing populations in Australia Indigenous Australians are the most disadvantaged in many areas ranging from employment, housing, justice and education among many more. There have been various attempts at overcoming the disadvantages Aboriginal people face. For the purposes of this literature review different literature will be discussed around addressing the social inequality and disadvantage of indigenous people in relation to improving on the gap in life expectancy and what fundamental elements need to be considered for the process to work effectively. Views of what has brought about the low life expectancy will be discussed to highlight the importance of were actions should be targeted. This will then be followed by a review of what actions are in place at the moment. There are competing ideas in the literature as to what is the cause for the life expectancy gap between Indigenous and non-indigenous Australians, which also give different arguments as to how to address the problem, with one side taking a view of longevity and the other a holistic approach. It is argued that Indigenous Australians health disparities could be narrowed with the improvement of the disparities in health service access, provision and use. As The inabilities to gain sufficient health care due to, distance, cultural and availability barriers has lead to indigenous health problems being constant and prolonged (Healey 2002). However Eades of the of the Indigenous health research unit (2000,p.468) argues that a comprehensive approach to improving the health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders involves understanding the close relationships between their social and economic status and their health. This holistic view of the social and economical status of Aboriginal people being improved upon to overcome health problems can be further reinforced through explanations of how psychological and social influences affect physical health and longevity (Wilkinson and Marmount 2003) in which it is stated life expectancy is shorter and most diseases are more common further down the social ladder in each society. Health policy must tackle the social and economical determinants of health (p.10). McMurray and Param (2008) readdress the primary health care aspect and bring in the notion that cultural specific guidelines with-in health structures is the key in improving Aboriginal health. This however ignores the h istorical issues between Indigenous and non indigenous relations that affect the life expectancy gap as the situation for indigenous Australians is further exacerbated by racism and prejudice, which have marginalised them from various aspects of social and community life, with additional detrimental effects on health (Eades 2000, p.469) and in effect the fear among Aboriginal people of institutional racism (Sweet 2003). Experiences of loss of traditional roles, a history of conflict and dispossession, failed assimilation and passive welfare are not isolated to indigenous Australians but have been experienced by indigenous peoples of other countries who have been colonised (Banks 2007). The statistics show however that indigenous Australians life expectancy compared to that of non- indigenous Australians to be considerably lower with men 11.5yrs difference women 9.7 yrs (Australian Bureau of statistics, 2010) were as the longevity gap between MÄ ori and non-MÄ ori has closed slightly. The difference in life expectancy at birth of 8.2 years in 2005-07 compares with 8.5 years in 2000-02 and 9.1 years in 1995-97 (statistics New Zealand 2008). Centres for Disease Control and Preventions (2010) also show the life expectancy gap in the U.S for Black or African American People to be somewhat lower than Australias and has been also closing slightly as at 1995 the gap was 7 years for both sexes and at 2005 has been reduced to 5.1 years. As it has been established that health can be a reflection social determinants, it would be fare to say that the social status and relations of international indigenous people are further along than Australia. Canada, New Zealand and The United States all have specifically designed treaties of political, legal and cultural significance which were designed in consultation with the Indigenous peoples that have established indigenous and non-indigenous relations with governments using treaties and treaty-making as part of a wider approach to developing a better relationship with and addressing the socio-economic problems of indigenous peoples (Brennan et al. 2005, p.99). In Australia there are no such treaties and often the commonwealth and state governments have a different belief in how the gap in life expectancy can be overcome to that of many indigenous Australians. This can be seen through the use of policies relating to indigenous affairs. A health impact assessment of the current governments Northern territory Emergency Response (NTER) points out that the Aboriginal understanding of health as having five dimensions cultural, spiritual, social, emotional and physical-within which are a number of layers that reflect historical, traditional and contemporary influences on health (OMara 2010,p.547). It is needed that Indigenous people have greater control over these dimension of their daily lives in order for the indigenous disadvantage to be improved (Maddison 2009). However the summary of findings from the assessment conclude that because of the lack of consultation with the Aboriginal communities and ignoring of cultural elements, the NTER is un likely to be effective in its aim of improving physical health and improving the social and environmental determinants of health as The HIA predicts that improvements in physical health may be outweighed by negative impacts on the psychological health, spirituality, and cultural integrity of a high proportion of the Aboriginal population in prescribed communities (Australian Indigenous Doctors Association and Centre for Health Equity Training 2010, p.65). There is an evidence base around the relationship between social detriments and psychological and physical health, with implications on health, through the addressing of those social detriments. Within indigenous communities outside Australia, social factors of cultural significance have and continue to be address through consultations with Governments. It is in these countries that statistics show improvements in life expectancy of the Indigenous population. Were as in Australia were this type of consultation and cultural consideration is absent in Governments initiatives and policies the gap in life expectancy in Australia continues to be a constant burden of Australian indigenous peoples. With the NTER which like past policies also excludes indigenous peoples involvment, being the Governments latest attempt at overcoming the status of appalling health among Australian Aborigines, the gap can be expected to continue. Asked about the governments priorities, indigenous affairs minister Jenny Macklin said that there will be little progress made by spending money on indigenous health without first addressing the chronic social problems that have been eating away at Aboriginal society (Dart 2008, p.247). References Australian Bureau of statistics 2010, The Health and Welfare of Australias Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, Canberra, Viewed 19 October 2010, http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[emailprotected]/lookup/437BB6CD9D0BCDB8CA2577300017FB8F?opendocument Australian Indigenous Doctors Association and Centre for Health Equity Training, Research and Evaluation 2010, Health Impact Assessment of the Northern Territory Emergency Response , Canberra, viewed 19 October 2010 http://www.aida.org.au/viewpublications.aspx?id=3. Banks, G 2007, Overcoming Indigenous Disadvantage in Australia, Australian Government Productivity commission, Canberra, viewed 19 October 2010, http://www.pc.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/64584/cs20070629.pdf Brennan, S, Behrendt, L, Strelein, L Williams, G 2005, Treaty, The Federation Press, Sydney, NSW. Centres for Disease Control and Prevention 2010, Table 26. Life expectancy at birth, at 65 years of age, and at 75 years of age, by race and sex: United States, selected years 1900-2005, U.S, Viewed 19 October, http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus08.pdf#026 Dart, J 2008, Australias disturbing health disparities set Aboriginals apart, Bulletin of the World Health Organization,vol.86, no.4, pp.245-247, viewed 5 October 2010, retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Eades, S 2000, Reconciliation, Social Equity and Indigenous Health, The Medical Journal of Australia, vol.172, viewed 8 October 2010, pp.468-469. Healey, J (ed.) 2002, Aboriginal Disadvantage, The Spinney Press, NSW. Maddison, S 2009, Australia: Indigenous Autonomy Matters, Development, vol.52, no. 4, pp.483-489, viewed 19 October 2010, retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. McMurray, A Param, R 2008, Culture Specific Care for Indigenous People: A Primary Health Care Perspective, Contemporary Nurse: A Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, vol. 28, pp.165-172, viewed 22 October 2010, retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. OMara, P 2010, Health Impacts of the Northern Territory Intervention: After the Intervention Editorial, The Medical Journal of Australia, vol .192, no.10, viewed 8 October 2010, pp.546-548, http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/192_10_170510/oma10307_fm.pdf. Statistics New Zealand Tatauranga Aotearoa 2008, New Zealand Life Tables: 2005-2007, New Zealand, Viewed 19 October 2010, http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/health/life_expectancy/NZLifeTables_HOTP05-07.aspx Sweet, M 2003, Carrying a Heavy Burden, BMJ: British Medical Journal, Vol.327, no.7412, pp.414-414, viewed 5 October 2010, retrieved from Academic Search Premier database. Wilkinson, R Marmot, M (eds.) 2003, Social Determinants of Health The solid Facts, 2nd edn, WHO, Copenhagen, Viewed 23 October 2010, retrieved from http://www.euro.who.int/en/what-we-publish/abstracts/social-determinants-of-health.-the-solid-facts.

Negative Effects Of Fertilisers On Our Environment

Negative Effects Of Fertilisers On Our Environment The scope of this report is to examine the negative effects of fertilisers on our environment. It will primarily focus on the Nitrogen Fertilisers, there effects and solutions to combat those effects. Synthetic N fertilisers are one of the biggest cause for eutrophcation. When excess fertiliser runs off to the water, it can causes algal blooms, fish kills etc. Excessive nitrogen in the drinking water also has negative effects on humans. The production and application process is one of the contributing factos to the Greenhouse Gas emissions (GHG) as well. The report touches on the other two primary elements in fertilisers, phosphate and potassium, however, we will not go into detail discussions. Fertiliser run-offs, mostly nitrogen, is a matter of great concern in Queensland where the run offs from adjacent sugar cane and cattle farms are polluting the water in the Great Barrier Reef. It is a great threat to the ecosystem of the Reef and measures needs to be considered to reduce this pollution and also ways to rehabilitate and conserve the ecosystem of the Reef. Resultantly, in this report we discuss how an excise policy can help reduce these negative effects of N fertiliser. We look into ways of promoting organic fertilisers and hydroponics with the help of the excise, also keeping in mind that the internalisation of the external cost should be one of the major underlying policy issues. We look into financial rebates and assistance that may be available to farmers opting to use organic fertilisers and switch to hydroponics. Part of the excise revenue should be earmarked for these purposes. We consider regulations that should be introduced to compliment and magnify the effects of the excise. The N-Replacement is a program where the soil is tested and the application of N is confined to only the amount that is required. In the fullness of time, all farmers should have to participate in such programs. Lastly, we examine the benefits and negative effects of the proposed excise on the manufacturers, farmers and consumers. We will also look at any administrative and compliance issues that may arise with the introduction of the new excise. The role of the proposed excise in helping us meet our commitments under the Kyoto Protocol is also examined. Introduction This report is about the effects that fertilizers have on our environment. While the use of synthetic fertilizers has ensured an enormous boom in the agricultural sector, it has had its negative effects on the environment as well. The effects are directly related to issues like global warming and greenhouse gas emissions, and much more. The three major elements of synthetic fertiliser are nitrogen, phosphate and potassium. The damages that fertilisers have on the environment can be divided into three broad categories; natural resources (water, soil and air), wildlife and ecosystem and human health. Nitrogen fertilisers have the worse effect on the environment with phosphate following closely. This report will primarily focus on Nitrogen (N) fertilisers. It is beyond the scope of this report to discuss all the elements in fertilisers and discuss their effects. This is because different elements have different environmental effects and to a varying degree. They all have different use i n the agriculture industry as well. However, once the excise model for the N nitrogen is established, a similar model can be used to impose excise on all the other fertilisers. Nitrogen Fertilisers When applied to the to soil to nourish farming land, nitrate, a compound of nitrogen, can wash off the agriculture fields by means of rain or irrigation and can leach into the surface or ground water. Ground water is one of the sources of drinking water and excess nitrate in the drinking water can potentially cause cancer, respiratory distress in humans. In surface water, extra nitrogen may cause eutrophication, process of nutrient over enrichment. This is the primary cause of depletion in the oxygen level in coastal water. Coastal waters that receive an inflow from polluted rivers are the most affected. Eutrophcation is one of the biggest causes for coastal fish kill; it is also responsible for the harmful algal blooms and imbalance in the coastal ecosystems. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is highly affected by diffuse pollutants. Most of it comes from nitrogen fertilizers used in cropping and grazing lands in relatively small areas of the adjacent catchments. According to a research conducted by the CSIRO on the Great Barrier Reef, experts found that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Export of nitrogen and phosphorus is high and increased hillslope erosion rates have resulted in increased nutrient and sediment loads reaching and influencing inner shelf reef and benthic ecosystems. These pollutants are generated from diffuse sources and evidence from other geographical locations suggests that by the time their widespread effects are identified, the reef systems will be irreversibly damaged. Lastly, some of the nitrogen from the soil and water enters the atmosphere as nitric oxide and the green house gas nitrous oxide. This has a wide range of negative consequences, starting from acid rain to subtle shifts in dominant species and ecosystem function in forests and grassland ecosystems. Phosphate Fertilisers Phosphate is right behind nitrogen when it comes to negative effects to the environment. Fluoride has been and is the worse environmental liability that the phosphate fertiliser industry has passed on to the environment. Despite new advanced air pollution control technology which is resulting in less and less fluoride escaping into the atmosphere, the impact of fluoride emissions is still being felt. Amongst other things, the fluoride in the air has the potential to cause a number of disorders in livestock, The actual production process of phosphate is also harmful to the environment and humans equally. Potassium Fertiliser Potassium have not directly been related to any environmental pollution, even though it does have minor affect such as magnesium deficiency in crops and soil in the case of excessive application As can be seen, the use of chemical fertilisers is very harmful to the environment. In attempting to protect the Great Barrier Reef, the State Government and the Commonwealth has initiated programs like the Reef Plan, the N Replacement project. However, these government initiatives have been criticised by a many environmental agencies such as the World Wlidlife Fund (WWF) as being slow to achieve any real results. Government initiatives can only be effective when there is a drive from the general population to support those initiatives. The use of fertilisers in farming is essential to farmers as their profitability depends on the yield of the crops, which is predominantly the result of fertilisers. It is an essential resource to the farmers. In such a situation, the introduction of excise on synthetic nitrogen fertilizer and other chemicals used to maximise crop yield, can be one of the tools to discourage the use of such fertilisers and at the same time promote and the use of more environment friendly, non-chemical fertilisers and other farming alternatives. Regulation of the Fertiliser industry using excise Excise tax can be used as one of the tools for the government to influence the agriculture industry and influence the level of demand for synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. By imposing excise, we create an artificial price differential between the synthetic nitrogen fertilisers and its organic counterpart. This has the effect of farmers being more mindful about over application of the N fertiliser and using it sparingly. In case of blended fertilisers, where all three elements are present, the nitrogen component will be excisable. This is turn will promote the production of fertiliser that have a low synthetic N fertiliser content.. Apart from trying to promote consumption of low nitrogen content fertilizers, excise can also promote higher consumption of organic fertilisers. This can be done similar to the fuel excise system in Australia, where excise is imposed on both organic and synthetic fertilizers, however, a full rebate may be available to the users of the organic fertilisers, making the effective rate of excise for organic fertiliser zero. In the fullness of time, when all fertilisers are included in the excise system, i.e. nitrogen, phosphate and potassium, differential excise rates may be introduced, where they all have different excise rate depend on the degree of severity of effects each of them on the environment. The idea is that, if an all purpose fertiliser is high in nitrogen than it will have a higher price tag (nitrogen is the most harmful element of the three) as opposed to an alternative blend that is high in potassium; the higher the content of the most harmful chemical (N), the higher the price of the end product. There is an alternative to introducing fertilisers to the excise system. The government can promote and take active steps to make the agricultural industry consider hydroponic controlled environment agriculture. The principle advantage of hydroponics compared to tradition farming is the isolation of crops from the soil. As there is no soil involved there is no chance of drainage or problems associated with leeching of nitrogen to the ground or surface water. The fertilisers that are not used up by the plants are caught and reused. Excise rates and underlying reasons In setting the excise rate, we need to be mindful of the underlying policy objectives. The objectives are: For the agriculture industry to use fertilisers that are less harmful to the environment. To the use of alternative organic fertilisers To promote hydroponics, an alternative method of farming. Internalise the external cost that the fertiliser industry imposes on the environment The external cost should be the main element that we should try to internalise via the introduction of the excise tax. Charging consumers or producers for external costs, which should induce them to reduce their activities to the socially optimal level, is known as the Pigouvian prescription. This rule states that efficient consumption or production can be achieved through the tax system by imposing an excise on the activity equal to the marginal cost of the damage caused to other people. In trying to internalise the external cost of fertilizer pollution, many governments around the world are considering some form of environment tax. In China, a study was undertaken on the external cost and optimum use of nitrogen fertiliser on the paddy field system of the Dongting Lake are. The research showed that the nitrogen fertiliser application in the region well exceeded the required levels. Such that, an environmental tax was suggested on the excess use of nitrogen fertiliser. In Australia, there is not much information available on the external cost of the agriculture industry. However, figures from other country gives us an idea of the external cost imposed by the industry. A US study estimates the externalised costs of agricultural production (in natural resources, wildlife, biodiversity and human health) to be between $5.7 and $16.9 billion annually is a broad estimate, it is not Australian-specific, nor restricted specifically to agriculture, but it does highlight the need to understand the environmental impacts of agriculture better in the Australian context. In Europe, the estimated external cost of nitrogen fertiliser is about 0.3 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬/kg N, bearing in mind that the market price is of the fertiliser is about 0.5 à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬/kg N. This effectively means, that if the whole amount was internalised then the price of N fertilisers would rise by about 60%. For the purpose of this report we will use the European figures as, mentioned earlier, there is not much Australian specific data available on the external cost of fertilisers. Now 60% excise on N fertiliser may seem like a staggering figure, however, when this excise is placed is conjunction with other regulation and policies the net effective excise will drop considerably. These issues will be discussed in the next section. Specific vs Ad valorem rate The next issue in the rate setting process is to determine if this rate is going to be specific or ad valorem. The choice between the options depends on the underlying policy, i.e. to raise revenue, discourage consumption, improvement of quality etc. Ad valorem tax creates a price differential between similar excisable good base on quality where the high-quality products are dearer than the low-quality products. This is a good tax mechanism if revenue maximisation is the underlying policy objective. However, if the main focus is to reduce harmful levels of consumption of any product, then specific tax is more appropriate. Specific or volumetric taxation is based upon the number of units sold, irrespective of their value and recognises that the potential for harm falls equally upon consumers or the community irrespective of the price of the item. Coming back to the topic in hand, specific tax is the appropriate rate to use as we are really interested on the internalising the external cost of N fertiliser on the basis of $/kg N. If the tax is imposed on the value or the cost of production of the fertilisers, it will not properly reflect the negative effects that the application of N fertiliser has on our environment. Taxation vs Regulation It is argued that taxation by itself will not always achieve the desired or complete results. Tax can influence the consumption pattern of consumers to a certain extent but regulations are needed to back up the tax. High taxes on tobacco and drink reduce average and usually also excessive consumption. But a tobacco tax cannot deal in a cost effective way with the effects of passive smoking; (inflexible) bans on smoking in public places are necessary to deal with this externality. Similarly, the alcohol excise is an inadequate instrument to restrain people from getting behind the wheel of their car after they have had a drink. Drink-driving breath tests are better targeted to deal with this situation. . Regulations can be in many forms, it can be requirements imposed on the end users, i.e., farmers or it can be regulations on the fertiliser manufacturers. In Germany, farmers are required to calculate and report annual nutrient balances in the soil in order to demonstrate that they have not over or under applied fertilisers. Imposing regulations on the manufacturers may not be of much use apart from quality control. The regulations should focus on the farmers instead, with science based approaches to soil testing, promoting good agricultural practice and optimal use of nitrogen. This approach is in line with the new nitrogen management method N Replacement and in time this along with any other similar programs should be made mandatory. Apart from being environmentally beneficial it is also beneficial to farmers as under this method they will need to purchase and apply only the amount of soil that is required by the soil, resulting in cost savings for the farmers. Another method of regulation, could be the issue of tradeable permits. However, under this system the costs associated is rather uncertain, compared to the excise system. A system of tradable permits guarantees the envisaged quantitative reduction in pollution but at an uncertain cost, while an environmental duty has an uncertain impact on the quantity of emissions but fixes the marginal cost of emission controls for polluters. Price elasticity and excise Fertilisers are a vital part of the agricultural industry. There is a very strong connection between application of fertilisers and crop yield and profitability. Therefore, it will not be wrong to conclude that the demand for fertilisers within the agricultural industry is inelastic. Having said that a 60% excise on N fertiliser is going to affect the farmers the most. Because of the elasticity of demand, the economic incidence of the tax will fall on the farmers, where the fertiliser manufacturers will be able to pass on most of the tax burden to the farmers in form of higher prices. Therefore, it is important to come up with relief policies for the farmers as well, bearing in mind that we are also trying to promote the use of organic fertilisers and hydroponics method of productions at a large scale. This will be discussed in more details in the next section. Exemptions/exception for the excise system and why There should be exceptions, where the tax incidence for the farmers should be nil. Exemptions should be available to farmers in the form of a rebate. As one of the policy issue is to promote the use of organic fertilisers. Farmers should be entitled to a full or partial rebate depending on if the fertilisers are solely organic or substantially organic. Organic fertilisers are largely derived from plan plants or animals. Substantially organic fertilisers are product where some synthetic fertilisers have been added to boost the nutrient content of the fertiliser. A rebate should also be available for farmers who pre dominantly practices or are in the process of adopting hydroponics method of production. There are two reasons behind this exemption. First of all, the nitrogen used in hydroponics has no effect on the environment. The plants are grown in a controlled environment, usually in a greenhouse, therefore, there are no emissions, run offs or leeching. This effectively means there are no external costs associated with the application of nitrogen fertilizer under this system. Secondly, the biggest drawback of converting to hydroponics from the traditional method of agriculture is the high capital set up costs associated. Since we are trying to encourage more and more farmers to consider hydroponics, it only makes sense to provide some sort of relief to them in the form of ongoing rebate to compensate for the high set up costs. Lastly, a partial rebate should also be available to farmers who are participating in recommended programs such as the N- Replacement program. The N-Replacement program has the potential of reducing nitrogen inputs by almost one third. The government can only have this rebate available till the program is fully tested and made mandatory. Till then farmers should be rewarded for voluntary participation in the program. Positive and negative effects from this new excise Positive effects Lower demand for synthetic N fertiliser The introduction of the excise on the nitrogen fertiliser will lower the demand for it. As discussed earlier, because of the low price elasticity of demand, the fertiliser manufacturers will be able to pass on most of the tax burden to the farmers in the form of higher price. Higher prices will mean that farmers will now be more mindful when it comes to the application of the fertiliser. More and more farmers will be forced to practice good farming methods, only applying the amount that is required in order to save on cost of fertilisers. Less emission, leaching as a result As farmers starts to pay more attention to the wastage level and apply the optimal amount of nitrogen required to replenish the soil, there is less leeching and emission. Influx of excise revenue One of the unavoidable effects of imposing excise duty is the inflow of revenue. The revenue that comes in from this particular excise should be hypothecated. It should be used to finance projects that will aid in cutting down the use of N fertiliser application. Some of the funds should also be earmarked for providing assistance to farmers switching to hydroponics. Helps the government to meet other policy issue As the application rate of the N fertilisers reduce, it helps the government meet other environmental related policies, such as Australias commitment under the Kyoto Protocol. This will be discussed in more details in the next setion. Negative effects Higher cost of production for the farmers, which may be passed on consumers As discussed earlier, the imposition of excise will mean that the farmer will pay a higher price to purchase the fertilisers. Even if optimal applications of N fertiliser methods are implemented, there would still be an increase in the cost of production for the farmers. This in turn would mean that the increased cost of production for the farmers will be passed on to the final consumers in form of higher prices for fresh fruit, vegetable etc. Loss of revenue for the fertiliser manufacturers There will a significant loss of revenue for the fertilizer manufacturers, as they are the one who are actually liable for the excise payable. They will pass on the bulk of the tax to the agriculture industry, however, they will still loose out of a significant amount of profit. How will this new excise interact with Australias commitment under the Kyoto Protocol Under the Kyoto Protocol, Australia is committed to reduce its greenhouse emissions to 108 percent of the level we were in 1990. This target has to be achieved by 2012 (2008 -2012 is known as the first commitment period). According to a report on climate change, in 2008 the emissions for the agriculture sector are projected to be 77 Mt CO2 of emission over the Kyoto period. This is a 4% decrease on the 1990 level. Most of the decrease is, however, attributable to the drought. Therefore, introduction of this new excise will ensure that there is a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. Apart from gas emission after the application of the N fertiliser, it also emits greenhouse gas during the production process. The production of fertilisers demands much energy and generates considerable greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Kongshaug (1998) estimates that fertiliser production consumes approximately 1.2% of the worlds energy and is responsible for approximately 1.2% of the total GHG emissions. Therefore, when demand falls as a result of the new excise and regulations, the supply will eventually fall as well, with reduced production of synthetic N fertiliser. This, again, will result in reduced level of GHG emissions. Impact of the new excise on; Consumers The excise will mean that the price of end products that are heavily dependant on the N fertiliser will increase. When excise is imposed on a commodity, even though the legal incidence lies with the producers, the ultimate tax burden falls on the end users of the finished product by means of higher price. Therefore, we need to be mindful of that while imposing the excise. Business The excise will not affect businesses much. Businesses or in this case, the retail shops are just middle men. Any part of the tax that they do pay in form of higher wholesale prices, they simply pass it on to the consumers. Government revenues At first glance, it can be said that government revenue will also increase with this proposed excise. However, if we are to put the revenue aside, hypothecate the funds for the sole purpose of funding programs and assisting farmers in adopting more sustainable methods of farming, then in essence it will not be wrong to say that the government revenue stays the same. There is not extra gain as such from the revenue perspective to the government. Revenue generated from these policies could have an outcome on the effect of these policies, depending on how it is used. If revenues from a tax are added to the general treasury store then the wellbeing of those affected by the tax is negatively affected as modelled, but if the funds are ring-fenced for a relevant purpose such as assisting the fertilizer industry or farmers, then the welfare of those actors is not diminished by as much. Administration costs There should not be any extra cost related to the administration of the new excise. Currently the Australian Taxation office is responsible for the administration of all excisable and excise equivalent goods. The ATO is already well equipped to deal with excise tax. Moreover, under the self assessment regime where businesses calculate there own excise liabilities, the incremental change on administration cost should be minimal. The taxing point should be fixed as the fertilisers are leaving the factory for delivery to wholesalers and/ or the domestic market. This will further ensure ease of administration of the excise tax. Compliance activities The compliance activities on behalf of the businesses should be fairly straightforward as well. Under the self assessment system, businesses keep records and fill out their own excise return. Another section maybe introduced to the excise return, where farmers are eligible for a rebate. However, it should all be part of the prevailing excise return system that we currently have. Recommendation After examining the effects of synthetic fertilisers on our environment, especially the N fertiliser, it is recommended that the excise tax of 60% at a specific rate should be imposed. It is true that the imposition of the tax may have a large impact on the fertiliser manufacturers and farmers. However, that is the initial impact. Along with the excise, we should also provide rebates for the farmers, who act in accordance with out other policy objective. Farmers who look at alternative organic fertilisers should be entitled to a rebate as negative effects from organic fertilisers are minimal compared to its synthetic counterpart. Further rebates should be available to farmers switching to hydroponics, as the nitrogen content in the nutrient solution has no effect on the environment. Lastly, assistance should be available to farmers who make voluntary participation in good farming practices i.e. take part in practices like the N-Replacement program. Along with these financial laws, we should also implement some non financial regulations, which will ensure a superior result. Here, the goal is not make sure that the farmers are not applying excessive amount of synthetic N fertilisers to the soil and at the same time moving towards organic fertiliser. The tax will bring about that inclination in the farmers, they will want to apply the optimal amount of synthetic nitrogen in order to save cost on fertilisers and also look into cheaper alternatives which are more environmentally friendly. However, in the fullness of time, we need to introduce regulations, specially the one similar to Germany where the farmers needs to annually record and report the nutrient content of their farming land to the authorities. In the long run we should also make a N- Replacement plan mandatory, after it has been fully tested by CSIRO. We should also ear mark, some of the revenue from this new excise to help fund the programs and any similar programs. The new proposed excise policy combined with the proposed regulations is a little step towards Australia meet its commitment under the Kyoto Protocol. It is true the tax might hurt manufacturers, farmers and consumers, financially. However, we need to ensure that the external costs caused by the production and application of the fertiliser are being met, so that it reflects on the price. It is the responsible thing to do, to pay the price for the harm that the industry is causing the environment. It is a trade off we have to make to ensure a better world for the next generation. In order to stop global warming, bring balance back to our ecosystem, protect the Great Barrier Reef, it is a small price to pay.

Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Essay

Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Introduction Electrical and Electronics products are now commonly found all around the world and the number is on the rise. The amount of such products that is being disposed is also on the rise. There is a concern on the environmental effect by such products that is being disposed as well as when it is being manufacturer. This is because most of these products contain either harmful substance or non bio-degradable materials which cause an impact on the environment. For these reasons, regulations and directives are being set up to safe guard and prevent more harm from being done to the environment. This report would be discussing on the harmful effects by traditional manufacturing and some of the regulatory and directive being set up around the world. Also, responses from the electronics industry with regards to the directives and regulations would be discussed. 1 Traditional manufacturing of electronic equipments 1.1 The use of soldering lead Solder comprised of tin and lead is currently a fundamental material joining electronic components to circuit boards in the assembly of almost every type of electronic product. Worldwide, over 20 million pounds of tin-lead solder are used annually. [1] 1.2 The manufacturing of PCBs In the process of making PCBs using the "subtractive" process, the circuit pattern is created by chemically etching copper from the unprotected (non-circuit) areas of the copper-coated panel, leaving circuit traces protected with photoresist. Etching can be accomplished with acids or bases, depending on the etch rate and the line width required. The most commonly used etchant is an aqueous solution of ferric chloride (FeCl3), used at temperatures over 50 Â °C. FeCl3 is acidic, relatively cheap, comparatively innocuous and versatile, attacking aluminium, copper, iron, nickel and their alloys. However, the spent etchant and its rinse water contain heavy metal ions such as nickel and chromium which are hazardous to the environment and most difficult to render harmless. Approximately 60% of the copper on the board is removed in the typical etching process. As the copper content of the etchant increases, the etchant cannot effectively remove the copper from the board, and it is consi... ...le. This also reduced the assembly time and lowered the production cost [17][18] References: [1] http://www.epa.gov [2] http://www.lsc.cc.mn.us/lib/classes/emuseum/disposal/disposal.html [3] http://www.nsc.org/library/facts/lead.htm [4] http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/chromium.html [5] http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/training/mercury.htm [6]http://home.datacomm.ch/raabe/e_ee_1.pdf#search='DIRECTIVE%20OF%20THE%20EUROPEAN%20PARLIAMENT%20AND%20OF%20THE%20COUNCIL' [7] http://www.entecuk.com/client/ec/fr_appendixa.html#1 [8] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/weee/ [9] http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/weee.pdf [10] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/pdfs/finalrohs.pdf [11] http://www.2001elec.co.uk/RoHS/index.htm [12] http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/solder/solderfact.pdf [13] http://www.eia.org/new_policy/environment.phtm [14] http://www.iaer.org/communications/NL0200.html [15] http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/spheres_ehp.htm [16] http://techrepublic.com.com/5100-6265-1058179.html [17] Electronic Product Recovery and Recycling Conference Summary Report, Environmental Health Center, 1998 [18] Gertsakis, Ryan & Hoy, 1996 http://www.rsc.org On Rohs: References for my part. Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Essay Impact on the Environment of Electrical and Electronics Products Introduction Electrical and Electronics products are now commonly found all around the world and the number is on the rise. The amount of such products that is being disposed is also on the rise. There is a concern on the environmental effect by such products that is being disposed as well as when it is being manufacturer. This is because most of these products contain either harmful substance or non bio-degradable materials which cause an impact on the environment. For these reasons, regulations and directives are being set up to safe guard and prevent more harm from being done to the environment. This report would be discussing on the harmful effects by traditional manufacturing and some of the regulatory and directive being set up around the world. Also, responses from the electronics industry with regards to the directives and regulations would be discussed. 1 Traditional manufacturing of electronic equipments 1.1 The use of soldering lead Solder comprised of tin and lead is currently a fundamental material joining electronic components to circuit boards in the assembly of almost every type of electronic product. Worldwide, over 20 million pounds of tin-lead solder are used annually. [1] 1.2 The manufacturing of PCBs In the process of making PCBs using the "subtractive" process, the circuit pattern is created by chemically etching copper from the unprotected (non-circuit) areas of the copper-coated panel, leaving circuit traces protected with photoresist. Etching can be accomplished with acids or bases, depending on the etch rate and the line width required. The most commonly used etchant is an aqueous solution of ferric chloride (FeCl3), used at temperatures over 50 Â °C. FeCl3 is acidic, relatively cheap, comparatively innocuous and versatile, attacking aluminium, copper, iron, nickel and their alloys. However, the spent etchant and its rinse water contain heavy metal ions such as nickel and chromium which are hazardous to the environment and most difficult to render harmless. Approximately 60% of the copper on the board is removed in the typical etching process. As the copper content of the etchant increases, the etchant cannot effectively remove the copper from the board, and it is consi... ...le. This also reduced the assembly time and lowered the production cost [17][18] References: [1] http://www.epa.gov [2] http://www.lsc.cc.mn.us/lib/classes/emuseum/disposal/disposal.html [3] http://www.nsc.org/library/facts/lead.htm [4] http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/chromium.html [5] http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/training/mercury.htm [6]http://home.datacomm.ch/raabe/e_ee_1.pdf#search='DIRECTIVE%20OF%20THE%20EUROPEAN%20PARLIAMENT%20AND%20OF%20THE%20COUNCIL' [7] http://www.entecuk.com/client/ec/fr_appendixa.html#1 [8] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/weee/ [9] http://www.epa.sa.gov.au/pdfs/weee.pdf [10] http://www.dti.gov.uk/sustainability/pdfs/finalrohs.pdf [11] http://www.2001elec.co.uk/RoHS/index.htm [12] http://www.epa.gov/dfe/pubs/solder/solderfact.pdf [13] http://www.eia.org/new_policy/environment.phtm [14] http://www.iaer.org/communications/NL0200.html [15] http://www.svtc.org/cleancc/pubs/spheres_ehp.htm [16] http://techrepublic.com.com/5100-6265-1058179.html [17] Electronic Product Recovery and Recycling Conference Summary Report, Environmental Health Center, 1998 [18] Gertsakis, Ryan & Hoy, 1996 http://www.rsc.org On Rohs: References for my part.

Essay --

Cindy Christensen CCR092021 19, November 2013 Analysis 4 Argumentative Has Child Behavior Gotten Better or Worse In the Years? than it was years ago? My argument is that child behavior has worsened over the years. Through my research I’ve learned that there are many causes such as, parents that do not make time for their children because, they hold down two jobs. Children raised in poverty increases their involvement in crime. Kid’s manners are no longer here to exist. They also getting away with lying, stealing and fighting. Another cause is children today have too many options, such as television and video games, drugs and less parent supervision. Children are not as well behaved as they used to be. Children are not well behaved because, they are being raised by single parent or both parents carry jobs. â€Å"Research does shows that growing up in poverty, especially sustained poverty and extreme hardship during early childhood, increases the risk of later involvement in crime†(U.S. Census Bureau figures). Children that do not have their parent’s home to give them the attention they need will cause, kids to act out for example, kids will get into trouble at school or at a friend’s place and in up in a detention center or to jail. I think a lot of parents today do not realize how they affect their children, because if they did, kids would be better behaved. There would be less kids ending up in detention centers and less crime. Kids are not as well-mannered today due to parent’s lack of time. In the past one parent would work and the other would stay at home and spend time with his or her children. I’ve seen some of my friend’s homes and even their bedrooms and they are destroyed. Therefore the parent was too busy working or talk... ...nts would get more respect from their children as well. Parents have too much going on and let their work life or friend’s, problems and drama in their lives effect how they treat or teach their child. Unfortunately that means more bad behavior in the future and can lead to more crimes and drugs. A child will do anything to get attention and regrettably, it will be bad attention. Work Cited Healthychildren.org:Http://www.healthychildren.org/english/familylife/workplay/pages/working-parents.as Date 7/9/2013 Web 11/10/2013 Harvard Health letter: Harvard Health Publisher Database Date Oct 2010. Web 11/10/2013 Will Child Poverty raise crime rate? Http://www.politico.com/news/stones/1110/45527.html Date 11/23/2010 Web. 11/10/2013 Spiteri, Ylenia Galea, Elizabeth M. Psychology Research Progress: Psychology of Neglect, Publisher Nova Science Publishers, Inc. 2012 Print.

Ethical Issues in Management Essay

Every so often we hear the phrase â€Å"Business is business and a cup of tea is a cup of tea†. The contemporary business managers think quite on the contrary. Morals and ethics are the new paradigm and have taken the driving seat in the day to day working of the Management. Ethics contains code of conduct for a person to blend with others keeping in view the righteousness and goodness of the trade; whereas, morals are not primarily written but acted upon by most of society with rectitude. The modern manager faces several issues on the moral and ethical front as more teamwork is required to accomplish collective goals. Fraud, discrimination, nepotism, false marketing in advertorial manner is the name of the game for unethical pseudo professionals and to cope with them always remain a challenge for the socially and ethically responsible manager. The moral values of a professional lie deep within, starting with the core communications between his superiors, peers and subordinates. The levelheaded working style of a manager speaks volume of not only his good ethical behavior but also keen sense of judgment and ability to lead his subordinates in a fair and square manner. An ethically responsible manager not only tells people what to do but shows them how to do it. A Manager must be the role model to other employees of the company; therefore, he is accountable for the training and guidance of his coworkers and associates. The management must device an ethical education management and assessment of behavioral integrity of the employees to extract more productivity (Wankel, 2011). It is rightly said that â€Å"Charity begins at home†, the same is applied to morals of the management. Ethically responsible management practices enforced by a company ensure that the company declines any shady business practices and eventually fraudulent functioning of the employees. The old business model has drastically changed over the years as accountability and transparency have become norms of progressive business (Carroll, 2012). In this context, the burden on the shoulders of whistles blowers have increased radically. They should be encouraged to report organizational misconduct in any form or manifestation. It is the responsibility of the management to encourage its employees to report any fraud or delinquency. Fortification of the whistle blower from coworkers is the responsibility of the company also which in return shall endorse the trust of the employees on the management. There are many example of ethical dilemma which arises due to the fact that the people in power not realize the repercussion of their decisions. Although society gives so much for the business to prosper, mostly none is returned to the society. A classical example would be the industrial waste coming out of a process industry which gravely affects the flora and fauna of the milieu. The decision of the management to spill industrial drainage without treatment is a solemn ethical breach. The environmental agencies have formalized various codes and standards like OSHAS which should have been followed prior to any drainage of detrimental waste water. Ethically responsible management practices and social issues bear close rapport. Hence the management must always have an insight to resolve these issues as they are always involved in dealing with the community directly or indirectly related to the business. The managers may have to take stern decisions to alleviate unethical demeanor yet it is bound to return back in folds.

Health Sociology Essay

The present paper re conniptions unhomogeneous theories in reference to wellness sociology. password will centre around a brief definition of surmisal and sociology tour exploring and comparing two of the seven briny divinatory perspectives riflealism and emblematic interactionism. This paper concludes by providing reasoning on the importance of alter these two theories to the knowledge of health concern practitioners. A hypothesis apiece(prenominal)ows us to chafe sense of the world by providing miniature of why things happen and how things thrash. Each theory is developed on a appeal of different authors views although in the end they travel to sh be core values of a sure perspective or smart setliness (Germov, 2009). Theories be comm provided the foundation for all health policies and reflect on the guidance health c be providers deliver c be, they allow for health practitioners to enhance their knowledge on matters they are unsure of through soft researc h and encourage continuation of dexterity development in hope of achieving amend quality of forethought (Albert, Hodges, Kuper & Reeves, 2008).Sociology is simply the understand of pitying friendly life and encourages health feel for professionals to view chokeaday occurrences in different ways. It undersurface be worried down into sociology in nursing, relating to an item-by-items health care experience or sociology of nursing, referring to a greater extent to the issues that affect the profession as a upstanding (Green & Earle, 2009). Functionalism also cognise as structural functionalism or consensus theory looks at nightclub from a large prospective and is an approach to sociology based on ideas by three key theorists mily Durkheim (1858-1917), Talcott Parsons (1902-79) and Robert Mertons (1910-2003). This theoretical perspective, which is popular in the USA, explores the compulsory structures that emergency up a decree and how each part contributes to chief (prenominal)taining amiccapable perceptual constancy and equilibrium (Germov, 2009).According to Van Krieken et al. (2013) the main ideas of the functionalist perspective whitethorn be summarised from a comparison drawn from biology, with the use of the gay torso as an simulation to let off how an organism works. It firstly examines the various consanguinitys between the different split of the body, such as the lungs, heart, liver and brain, and with this investigation it provides an understanding of how they operate unitedly as a whole organism. By simply investigating these parts of the body in isolation of each different and without each organ operative smoothly unitedly the human body is unable to operate, the same is true for a confederacyand all the structures working together trying to maintain complaisant bless (Van Krieken et al., 2013).Along with Van Krieken et al. (2013) comparison with biology, Germov (2009) explains that functionalism centers on the assu mption that a society is a system made from a bundle up of connected structures, all of which consecrate an intrinsic function with certain exacts that touch on and depend on each other in allege for survival of well-disposed stability and consensus to be maintained. According to Germov (2009) the functionalist case of health care has mainly been influenced by Parsons (1951) and regarded individuals health as an essential condition of an unchanging and enjoin society. His idea of illness came from behaviours and/or activities that interrupt companionable exceptions somewhat what is normal and saw illness as a disruption to the usual function of society. He implemented the concept of the purge position stressing the importance for the sick to look to expert help in holy order to recover and continue performing their amicable role (Germov, 2009). typic interactionism was compiled by the pedagogys of a key theorist George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) in the twentieth centu ry. He believed that this theory was established as a reaction a unclutterst structuralist approaches such as structural functionalism and was the development of individuals and how people construct, sympathize and assign meaning to their behaviours in order to decide how they act with others (Germov, 2009). Herbert Blumer (1900-87) continued Meads work and coined the term to describe this theory of society in 1937. Symbolic interactionism encompasses not only sociology but various components of psychology by concentrating on a small(a) view of society and focuses on a small-scale perspective of individuals interactions and how this impacts a persons image or identity of themselves (Germov, 2009).According to Kneisl & Trigoboff (2009) symbolical interactionism rear be explained by breaking the human process into three central ideas it looks at how individuals react depending on the meaning, it gives meaning to things based on our social interactions with people assigning differen t meanings, and it explains that our meanings effrontery to something are not permanent and can be kindd with experiences that occur throughout everyday life. Symbolic interactionism gives special importance that health and illness are perceived subjectively as socially formed features of an individuals life that can change with time and vary inwardly certain horticultures (Germov, 2009). Labelling theory which is described by Germov (2009) associal institutions and health professions playing a role in defining what is deviant, show the way that medicine could be use as an instrument in promoting symmetry and help minimise the actions of difficult or abnormal social groups.Symbolic interactionism has an speech pattern on illness within a society and how it can be socially mirrored at any channel in time by politics, culture and object lessonity, therefor health care professionals may use this theory to gain opinions that are based on social and moral factors rather than j ust biological factors (Germov, 2009). Functionalism and symbolic interactionism are both theoretical paradigms that are applied in relation to the poll of societys structure. According to the structure-agency continuum in Germov (2009), both of these theories are placed at opposite ends, functionalism favouring the structure side of the contest plot of ground symbolic interactionism favouring the agency side. As discussed, the functionalist theory observes on a macro instruction scale how society works together by the interacting and interlocking parts, it is based on a to a greater extent(prenominal) objective scientific approach by focusing more on the organism working as a whole in order to provide social stability (Langhoff, 2002). contrasted functionalism, symbolic interactionism is based more on an interpretive approach which is observed on a micro scale and focuses more on the individuals reactions and actions when they bring together meaning to the interlocking parts (Langhoff, 2002). In order for us to comprehend, explain and make predictions about the involvement of a society and human relationships we must first gain a strong understanding of sociology and its impacts towards nursing. follow (as cited in Pinikahana, 2003), explained how sociology may help nurses with their essential role in caring for diligent ofs and discussed quatern ways of how sociology relates to nursing. Pinikahana (2003) explains the reasoning and justification for teaching sociology in order to increase the consciousness of the individuals mental and social needs, and views sociology as a subject that facilitates the holistic care of the patient. Cooke (as cited in Green & Earle, 2009) explains sociology as an emancipatory discipline, meaning health professionals need to remain self-critical and question the expectations of the profession that have been long held.Following the theory of functionalism within health care the sick role relies heavily on the medica l professional-patient relationship and should be able to rely on others to care for them in order to restoringtheir health, they are to comply with the recommended medical treatment and are not to be help personally responsible for their illness due to it world beyond ones control (Germov, 2009). With the use of symbolic interactionism theory in the health care system, it allows the practitioner to gain an understanding of the patients physical presentation on with their psychological needs (Germov, 2009). Adapting the use of soft research and theory based practices within the medical profession collectively increases the patients outcomes both mentally and physically by providing the best possible care using a holistic approach. If health practitioners are unaware of these various theoretical perspectives they may not be able to provide the best practice for the patient, then leaving the individual with a rock-bottom ability to regain their health (Germov, 2009).In conclusio n the theoretical perspectives of functionalism and symbolic interactionism along with the other five theories marxism, weberianism, feminism, contemporary contemporaneousness and post structuralism/post modernity are all important considerations that need to be taken into broadside when relations with people in the medical profession. Functionalism relates more to the sociology of nursing and explores the structures that are involved in making a society and abridge on the parts that interact together in order to make things work as a whole, the perfect example of this being the human body, without the awareness of this theory, social stability and consensus would not be achieved. Symbolic interactionism relates more towards sociology in nursing and takes into account the structures that meet the needs of society while it also considers individuals social facts like the way people hazard and act, gaining an overall picture of the patients social and psychological needs.